Enhancing Entrepreneurial Intentions among Vocational Students: The Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy, Personality Traits, Internship Experience, and Social Environment

Danan Wuryanto Pramono ¹, Eko Priyo Purnomo ², Muhammad Nurtanto ^3*, & Nur Kholifah ⁴

1 University of Gajayana Malang, Surabaya, Indonesia E-mail: pramonodw502@gmail.com

2 University of Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia E-mail: eko@umy.ac.id

3 Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Depok, Indonesia E-mail: muuhammad.nurtanto@mesin.pnj.ac.id

4 University of Yogyakarta State, DI Yogyakarta, Indonesia E-mail: nur.kholifah@uny.ac.id

ARTICLE HISTORY

Received : Revised : Accepted :

KEYWORDS

Entrepreneurial intention Vocational education Self-efficacy

Internship experience Social encviroment

ABSTRACT

Entrepreneurship is crucial for vocational education graduates to address workforce challenges and foster economic growth. However, there is a significant gap between entrepreneurial interest and intention among vocational students, leading to low entrepreneurial outcomes. This study aims to explore the factors influencing entrepreneurial intention, focusing on personal traits, self-efficacy, internship experience, and social environment. Using a quantitative survey method, data were collected from 507 vocational students in the engineering field in West Java, Indonesia. Variables were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The findings indicate that self-efficacy mediates the relationship between personal traits, internship experience, and social environment with entrepreneurial intention. Specifically, internship experiences and supportive social environments significantly enhance self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. This research contributes to vocational education by recommending structured entrepreneurial internships and fostering school ecosystems that support students’ entrepreneurial capabilities, particularly in Indonesia’s technical education

sector.

1. Introduction

Entrepreneurship is a multidimensional concept encompassing the ability to identify opportunities, innovate, and take risks to create new ventures (Arthur et al., 2021). In vocational schools, entrepreneurship education not only teaches theoretical concepts but also involves practical applications to equip students with skills and competencies relevant to the workforce or independent entrepreneurship (Adeyemo et al., 2021). This approach often integrates experiential learning through real projects or simulations that mimic entrepreneurial challenges, thereby enhancing students’ understanding of business operations and building their confidence (Ganefri et al., 2019; Hidayat et al., 2018). Various countries have demonstrated success in implementing entrepreneurship education, such as South Korea, which emphasizes creativity and innovation to meet

the demands of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, and Indonesia, which adopts production-based learning to foster students’ entrepreneurial intentions (Andayani et al., 2019; Byun et al., 2018). With this foundation, students are prepared not only to become employees but also to create job opportunities, positioning entrepreneurship education in vocational schools as a vital strategy to address unemployment challenges (James, 2024; Miço & Cungu, 2023). The combination of theoretical and practical approaches also promotes innovation and enhances economic competitiveness on a broader scale

Vocational school students face various challenges that hinder their entrepreneurial intentions, including limited opportunities to directly participate in managing businesses or collaborate with successful small and medium enterprises (SMEs) (Kamran, 2015; Kisno et al., 2023). This lack of practical experience contributes to low entrepreneurial

intentions, with data showing that less than 3% of vocational school graduates become successful entrepreneurs, a figure significantly lower than the 13% observed in developed countries. Furthermore, gaps in entrepreneurship education, particularly the lack of practice-based training and risk management strategies, leave students feeling less confident in making entrepreneurial decisions (Ismail et al., 2019; Muslim et al., 2020). Limited collaboration between vocational schools and local businesses further restricts students’ access to real entrepreneurial environments (Islamiah et al., 2022; Stadler & Smith, 2017). To address these issues, effective entrepreneurship education models are needed, such as entrepreneurial production units within schools and project-based learning, which can enhance students’ skills and confidence (Salam et al., 2021; Santos & Liguori, 2020). These approaches have proven successful in several countries, where close collaboration between schools and the business sector has resulted in graduates who are better prepared and more competitive.

Entrepreneurial intentions among vocational students are influenced by a combination of personal, psychological, and environmental support factors. Personally, individual traits such as independence, resilience, risk-taking courage, and discipline play a crucial role in shaping entrepreneurial intentions, as these characteristics help students overcome challenges and maintain motivation (Basir et al., 2022; Crowell, 2018; Febrianti et al., 2023). Additionally, self-efficacy, or students’ belief in their ability to succeed in entrepreneurship, has been shown to be a strong predictor of entrepreneurial intentions, as it enhances confidence and courage in facing risks (Anggadwita et al., 2021; Botha & Bignotti, 2016; C.- M. Chou & Shen, 2015). However, some studies critique the role of self-efficacy, highlighting that high confidence without genuine competency support can become an obstacle to success (Ghimire, 2022; Kholifah et al., 2022; Monllor & Soto-Simeone, 2020).

Environmental support, such as internship experiences and involvement in entrepreneurial communities, also contributes significantly. Internships provide direct exposure to the business world, enhance students’ skills, and build their confidence to start their own ventures (Fawaid et al., 2022; Güngör, 2021). Additionally, social support from family, friends, and professional networks has been shown to boost students’ entrepreneurial motivation through emotional and practical reinforcement (Altunkürek & Babat, 2019; Baldan et al., 2024). While most studies emphasize the importance of environmental factors, some critiques highlight the limited impact of internships on fostering entrepreneurial intentions when not supported by a curriculum integrated with real entrepreneurial practices (Lantu et al., 2022). Thus, the combination of personal identity, self-efficacy,

and environmental support becomes essential in enhancing the entrepreneurial interest and intentions of vocational students.

Research on the entrepreneurial intentions of vocational students has highlighted the importance of personal factors, such as self-efficacy, as well as environmental factors, such as internship experiences and social support. However, a gap exists in the literature addressing the simultaneous interaction of these dimensions, particularly in the context of vocational students in West Java. Most previous studies have focused on a single aspect, such as self- efficacy as a psychological factor (Bonesso et al., 2018; Ojo & Okwilagwe, 2024), or the influence of internship experiences on entrepreneurial intention development (Hutasuhut & Aditia, 2022). Meanwhile, the impact of social environment factors, including family and peer support, although significant, remains underexplored in relation to self-efficacy and the practical experiences of vocational students in this region (Harsono et al., 2023). The uniqueness of this study lies in its exploration of the interaction between self-efficacy, internship experiences, and social support in shaping the entrepreneurial interest and intentions of vocational students in West Java. This study also provides specific contextual insights into the challenges and opportunities in the region, which have been largely overlooked in previous research. Consequently, this research aims to fill the gap in the literature and make a significant contribution to the development of more effective entrepreneurship education strategies for vocational students.

This study aims to explore the entrepreneurial intentions of vocational students, emphasizing the psychological readiness, personal traits, and environmental support required to sustain their interest and intention in running a business after graduation. The study contributes by confirming the importance of entrepreneurial internship experiences aligned with students’ interests and participation in simple business activities to strengthen personal traits and self-efficacy. The findings also recommend that vocational education providers create an entrepreneurial ecosystem within schools to encourage active student engagement. Thus, this research contributes to the development of more effective entrepreneurship education strategies to produce vocational school graduates who are prepared to become entrepreneurs.

2. Literature Review

2.1 The Influence of Entrepreneurial Interest on Personality Traits, Internship Experience, and Social Environment

Entrepreneurial interest refers to an individual’s attraction to entrepreneurship, encompassing knowledge, motivation, and a positive attitude toward business activities. The literature suggests that

individuals with high entrepreneurial interest tend to exhibit supportive personality traits, such as independence and risk-taking courage. Research by Juhari et al. (2023), indicates that entrepreneurial interest can influence the development of positive personality traits. Furthermore, internship experiences driven by such interest can enhance practical skills and professional networks, which in turn strengthen social interactions (Ambad & Rafiki, 2024; Mensah et al., 2023). On the other hand, a supportive social environment, including encouragement from family and peers, also plays a significant role in shaping entrepreneurial interest.

Thus, entrepreneurial interest serves as a key driver for the development of personality traits, internship experiences, and the social environment. The proposed hypothesis is: H-DIR1,2,3: Entrepreneurial interest has a significant positive influence on personality traits, internship experiences, and the social environment.

2.2 The Influence of Personality Traits on Self-Efficacy and Entrepreneurial Intention

Personality traits encompass individual characteristics that influence behavior and decision- making, including within the entrepreneurial context. Traits such as courage, resilience, and independence can enhance self-efficacy, which is an individual’s belief in their ability to succeed. Individuals with positive personality traits, such as independence and resilience, tend to have higher confidence in their ability to manage a business. A study by Vivekananth et al. (2023), demonstrated that individuals with strong personality traits are more likely to possess higher levels of self-efficacy, which contributes to entrepreneurial intention. Thus, personality traits not only influence self-efficacy but also directly contribute to entrepreneurial intention.

Research by Mahmoud et al. (2020), indicates that individuals who believe in their abilities are more likely to pursue entrepreneurial goals. However, not all personality traits directly contribute to entrepreneurial intention; some traits may not exhibit a significant relationship. The proposed hypothesis is: H-DIR4,5: Personality traits have a significant positive influence on self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention.

2.3 The Influence of Internship Experience on Self-Efficacy and Entrepreneurial Intention

Internship experience refers to the practical exposure gained through internship programs, enabling individuals to apply theoretical knowledge in real-world scenarios. This experience can enhance self-efficacy by providing opportunities to learn and develop relevant skills. Research by Iwu et al. (2021), indicates that high-quality internship experiences can boost individuals’ confidence in managing a business.

Additionally, internship experience contributes to entrepreneurial intention by equipping individuals with the insights and skills necessary to start a business. A study by Fawaid, Triyono, Sofyan, Nurtanto, et al. (2022), demonstrates that positive internship experiences can increase self-efficacy, which in turn fosters entrepreneurial intention. Students who have undergone internships are more likely to be prepared to start their own ventures, as they have a better understanding of the challenges and opportunities in the entrepreneurial landscape (Obschonka et al., 2019; Vinogradova et al., 2023).

Thus, internship experience serves as a bridge connecting practical experience to entrepreneurial intention. The proposed hypothesis is: H-DIR6,7: Internship experience has a significant positive influence on self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention.

2.4 The Influence of Social Environment on Self-Efficacy and Entrepreneurial Intention

The social environment plays a crucial role in shaping individuals’ attitudes and entrepreneurial intentions. Support from family, friends, and the community can boost students’ confidence in pursuing their entrepreneurial interests. Strong social support can enhance self-efficacy by providing encouragement and motivation. Research by (Mutohhari et al., 2023) indicates that a positive social environment contributes to increased confidence in taking entrepreneurial risks. The social environment also influences entrepreneurial intention, as societal norms and values can shape individuals’ attitudes toward entrepreneurship. Furthermore, a supportive social environment can affect entrepreneurial intention by providing access to resources and networks essential for starting a business (Bazan et al., 2020; Gao & Huang, 2022).

Thus, a supportive social environment can significantly enhance individuals’ entrepreneurial intentions. The proposed hypothesis is: H-DIR8,9: Social environment has a significant positive influence on self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention.

2.5 The Influence of Self-Efficacy on Entrepreneurial Intention

Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to achieve specific goals, including in the entrepreneurial context (Juhari et al., 2023; Vivekananth et al., 2023). Self-efficacy is a key factor influencing an individual’s entrepreneurial intention. Individuals with strong confidence in their ability to manage a business are more likely to develop entrepreneurial intentions. Self-efficacy can also serve as a mediating variable, bridging the influence between entrepreneurial interest and entrepreneurial intention. Individuals with high levels of self-efficacy tend to take more risks and persist in pursuing

entrepreneurial goals. The literature suggests that self- efficacy plays a crucial role in shaping entrepreneurial intention, as individuals who trust their abilities are more likely to start a business. Research by Odewole et al. (2024) supports this finding, showing that higher self-efficacy contributes to stronger entrepreneurial intentions.

Thus, self-efficacy serves as a key determinant of entrepreneurial intention. The proposed hypothesis is: H-DIR10: Self-efficacy has a significant positive influence on entrepreneurial intention.

2.6 The Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy in Bridging the Influence of Entrepreneurial Interest on Entrepreneurial Intention

Self-efficacy can act as a mediator in the relationship between entrepreneurial interest and entrepreneurial intention (Juhari et al., 2023). When students have a strong interest in entrepreneurship, they are more likely to develop greater confidence in their ability to succeed, which, in turn, can enhance their intention to start a business. Research by (Mutohhari et al., 2023) indicates that self-efficacy not only results from experiences and personality traits but also serves as a critical factor connecting entrepreneurial interest with entrepreneurial intention.

Thus, the proposed hypothesis is that self-efficacy not only directly influences entrepreneurial intention but also strengthens the effect of entrepreneurial interest on entrepreneurial intention. The proposed hypotheses are:

H-IND1: Self-efficacy significantly mediates the positive effect of entrepreneurial interest on entrepreneurial intention.

H-IND2: Self-efficacy significantly mediates the positive effect of personality traits on entrepreneurial intention.

H-IND3: Self-efficacy significantly mediates the positive effect of internship experience on entrepreneurial intention.

H-IND4: Self-efficacy significantly mediates the positive effect of the social environment on entrepreneurial intention.

3. Method

3.1 Research Design

This study employs a quantitative approach with a survey method to explore and test the relationships between variables influencing vocational students’ entrepreneurial intentions. The survey method was chosen for its ability to collect comprehensive data from diverse participants, capturing their unique experiences and perceptions. This approach is critical for understanding the complex interplay of factors such as entrepreneurial education, self-efficacy, and environmental influences that shape students’

intentions to pursue entrepreneurial careers (Bae et al., 2014; Kusumojanto et al., 2021). By utilizing survey data, the study seeks to provide empirical insights into the factors driving entrepreneurial intentions among vocational students.

Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was selected as the analytical method due to its strength in handling complex models and non-normally distributed data (Hair et al., 2019). PLS-SEM is particularly effective in exploratory research, enabling the analysis of both direct and indirect effects, including mediating variables such as self-efficacy (Esfandiar et al., 2019; Kholifah et al., 2024). This method allows the study to examine how entrepreneurial education and family or environmental support enhance students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intentions (Yanling, 2023). The validity and reliability of PLS-SEM, well- documented in previous studies, further highlight its appropriateness for investigating the factors that foster entrepreneurial intentions among vocational students (Esfandiar et al., 2019).

3.2 Respondents

The study involved 507 grade XII vocational students from eight distinct areas of expertise, selected to represent diverse perspectives on entrepreneurial intentions. Inclusion criteria required that respondents had prior theoretical and practical experience in entrepreneurship, ensuring informed insights into their entrepreneurial aspirations (Muslim et al., 2020). Respondents were purposively sampled from the West Java region to capture unique regional characteristics, acknowledging the influence of local cultural, economic, and educational contexts on entrepreneurial attitudes (Kusumojanto et al., 2021). Gender was not a distinguishing factor, as the study assumed equal entrepreneurial potential across all genders, aligning with research advocating for inclusivity in entrepreneurship education. To maintain sample relevance, exclusion criteria were applied to filter out respondents from unrelated fields or levels, ensuring a homogeneous group with consistent entrepreneurial exposure (Mutohhari et al., 2023).

Table 1. Respondent Demographics by Field of Expertise

No	Field of Expertise	Respondents
1	Architectural Engineering	63
2	Civil Engineering	58
3	Audio Video Engineering	61
4	Industrial Electronics Engineering	67
5	Light Vehicle Engineering	65
6	Machining Engineering	62
7	Computer and Network Engineering	63
8	Light Vehicle Body Engineering	68
	Total of Participants	507

3.3 Data Collection

Data collection in this study was conducted using an instrument developed from a literature review on entrepreneurial intentions among vocational students. The instrument included 35 items, validated by experts to ensure content accuracy and relevance, with some indicators adjusted to suit local context and field needs (see Table 2). The items were measured using a 5-point Likert scale, where (1) represented “Strongly Disagree” and (5) represented “Strongly Agree.” Following (Hair et al., 2019), a minimum sample size for PLS-SEM analysis should be 5-10 times the

number of items, meaning at least 350 respondents for 35 items. With 507 respondents, this study exceeded the minimum requirement, ensuring representativeness. The ethical review process confirmed the instrument adhered to research standards, and the questionnaire was distributed via Google Forms through entrepreneurship teacher associations and school principals in West Java between August and November 2024.

Table 2. Questionnaire Developed to Measure Vocational Students’ Entrepreneurial Intentions

Variables Construct Indicators References

Entrepreneurial EIN1 Knowledge of Entrepreneurship (Ambad & Rafiki,

Interest

EIN2 Perception of Entrepreneurship EIN3 Interest in Entrepreneurship EIN4 Goal Orientation

EIN5 Desire to Start a Business EIN6 Motivation to Achieve

2024; Azeem et al., 2022; Kholifah et al., 2022; Portuguez Castro & Gómez Zermeño, 2021)

Personality PTR1 Independence (Bazkiaei et al., 2020;

Traits

PTR2 Adaptability

PTR3 Courage to Take Risks PTR4 Resilience

PTR5 Discipline

Kholifah et al., 2022; Obschonka et al., 2019)

Internship IEX1 Quality of Internship Experience (C. M. Chou et al.,

Experience

IEX2 Application of Theory to Practice IEX3 Application of Theory to Practice IEX4 Professional Networks

IEX5 Mentoring and Support

2017; Fawaid et al., 2022; Iwu et al., 2021)

Social SEN1 Family Support (Bazan et al., 2020;

Environment

SEN2 Peer Influence

SEN3 Availability of Economic Resources Participation in Community

Georgescu & Herman, 2020; Jamaluddin et al., 2019; Nguyen et

SEN4

SEN5

Activities

Community Perception of Entrepreneurship

al., 2019)

Self-Efficacy

SEN6 Social Networks

Confidence in Ability to Manage a

(Gao & Huang, 2022;

SEF1

Business

Odewole et al., 2024;

SEF2 Decision Making Skills SEF3 Networking Ability SEF4 Communication Skills

SEF5 Time Management Ability

Vivekananth et al., 2023)

Entrepreneurial ENT1 Interpersonal Skills (Abu Bakar et al.,

Intention

ENT2 Management Skills ENT3 Creativity and Innovation ENT4 Practical Experience ENT5 Social Responsibility ENT6 Access to Resources ENT7 Failure Experience

2024; Mutohhari et al., 2023; Vinogradova et

al., 2023)

3.4 Data Analysis

The data collected and cleaned were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) software, a robust multivariate analysis technique suitable for testing relationships among constructs in complex models (Yunus et al., 2021). The analysis began with the evaluation of the

measurement model, which included assessing convergent validity to ensure consistency among measures of the same construct and discriminant validity to confirm distinctiveness between constructs (Varma, 2019). Internal reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha (CA) and Composite Reliability (CR), with values above 0.70 indicating good reliability. This rigorous evaluation ensured that the

measurement model provided an accurate foundation for further analysis.

Following the measurement model evaluation, the structural model was analyzed to test the relationships between variables. Key metrics included the coefficient of determination (R²), which explains the variance in the dependent variable caused by the independent variables, and the effect size (ƒ²), which measures the contribution of each predictor. Hypothesis testing was performed using path analysis, producing β coefficients to represent relationship strength, and T statistics and p-values to determine the significance of these relationships (Hair et al., 2017). The analysis process was iterative, with refinement of the measurement model preceding the structural model evaluation. This iterative approach ensured the accuracy and robustness of the findings, providing credible insights into the factors influencing entrepreneurial intentions among vocational students (Siregar, 2023).

4. Result

4.1 Evaluation of Measurement Model

The evaluation of the measurement model is a critical initial step to assess the quality of constructs and the relationships between indicators and the constructs being measured. Tests were conducted to evaluate convergent validity, discriminant validity, and reliability consistency of the involved constructs. The results for convergent validity met the required criteria, with all constructs showing Factor Loading (FL) values above 0.70 and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values above 0.50. These results indicate that the constructs significantly explain the measured variables.

Additionally, discriminant validity testing using the Fornell-Larcker criterion and HTMT (Heterotrait- Monotrait Ratio) showed that each construct could be clearly distinguished from other constructs, demonstrating that the measurement model has high reliability and validity. This evaluation of the measurement model provides a strong foundation for further analysis of the relationships among variables in the context of entrepreneurship among vocational school students. Figure 1 presents a visualization of the results from the measurement model evaluation.

Figure 1. Evaluating Measurement Model

Convergent validity is a crucial aspect of measurement model evaluation, reflecting the extent to which the indicators used in the study effectively measure the intended constructs. Based on Table 2, all indicators for the variables Entrepreneurial Interest, Personality Traits, Internship Experience, Social Environment, Self-Efficacy, and Entrepreneurial Intention exhibit factor loading (FL) values above 0.70, which is the minimum threshold for good

convergent validity. Additionally, the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values for all constructs exceed 0.50, indicating that more than half of the variance in the indicators is explained by the respective constructs. These findings confirm that the indicators used in this study demonstrate high convergent validity. Therefore, the measured constructs can be considered valid and suitable for further analysis.

Table 2. Convergent Validity and Internal Consistency Reliability

		Convergent Validity		Internal Consistency Reliability
Variables	Constructs	FL (>0.70)	AVE (>0.50)	CA (0.70)	rho_A (0.70)	CR (0.70)
Entrepreneurial Interest	EIN1	0.821	0.635	0.888	0.944	0.913
Entrepreneurial Interest	EIN2	0.826
	EIN3	0.821
	EIN4	0.729
	EIN5	0.802
	EIN6	0.779
Personality Traits	PTR1	0.837	0.730	0.908	0.915	0.931
	PTR2	0.878
	PTR3	0.840
	PTR4	0.876
	PTR5	0.841
Internship Experience	IEX1	0.758	0.644	0.864	0.910	0.900
Internship Experience	IEX2	0.756
	IEX3	0.872
	IEX4	0.758
	IEX5	0.861
Social Environment	SEN1	0.850	0.686	0.908	0.914	0.929
Social Environment	SEN2	0.834
	SEN3	0.861
	SEN4	0.848
	SEN5	0.748
	SEN6	0.824
Self-Efficacy	SEF1	0.768	0.607	0.839	0.851	0.885
	SEF2	0.766
	SEF3	0.820
	SEF4	0.798
	SEF5	0.744
Entrepreneurial Intention	ENT1	0.814	0.694	0.926	0.927	0.941
Entrepreneurial Intention	ENT2	0.854
	ENT3	0.884
	ENT4	0.785
	ENT5	0.885
	ENT6	0.831
	ENT7	0.774

Internal consistency reliability refers to the extent to which the indicators within a construct are correlated and measure the same concept. Table 2 shows that all constructs in this study have Cronbach’s Alpha (CA) and Composite Reliability (CR) values greater than 0.70, which is the minimum standard for good internal consistency. For instance, the construct Entrepreneurial Interest has a CA value of 0.888 and a CR value of 0.913, indicating that the indicators used to measure this construct are highly consistent.

Similarly, other constructs, such as Personality Traits and Self-Efficacy, also exhibit excellent values, with CA (0.839) and CR (0.885) both exceeding 0.90.

These findings demonstrate that all constructs in this study have high reliability, ensuring that the results obtained are trustworthy. With good reliability, the researchers can be confident that the measurements are accurate and dependable. Therefore, this study has a strong foundation for proceeding with further analysis.

Tabel 3. Discriminant Validity: Fornell-Larcker

Variables	EIN	PTR	IEX	SEN	SEF	ENT
Entrepreneurial Interest	0.797
Personality Traits	0.098	0.855
Internship Experience	0.207	0.300	0.828
Social Environment	0.250	0.143	0.203	0.803
Self-Efficacy	0.209	0.470	0.496	0.282	0.779
Entrepreneurial Intention	0.204	0.342	0.486	0.464	0.681	0.833

Discriminant validity testing using the Fornell- Larcker method aims to ensure that each construct in the research model has good validity and can be distinguished from other constructs. In Table 3, the square root of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for each construct is compared to the correlations between constructs. The results show that the diagonal values (square root of AVE) for each construct are higher than the correlations with other constructs, indicating adequate discriminant validity.

For example, the construct Entrepreneurial Interest (EIN) has a value of 0.797, which is higher than its

correlation with other constructs, such as Personality Traits (PTR), which has a value of 0.098. This indicates that the construct Entrepreneurial Interest is clearly distinguishable from other constructs. Similarly, the construct Self-Efficacy (SEF) has a value of 0.779, which is also higher than its correlation with other constructs, such as Entrepreneurial Intention (ENT), which has a value of 0.681. Therefore, the results of this test support that all constructs in the research model have good discriminant validity, an essential requirement for further analysis.

Tabel 4. Discriminant Validity: HTMT

Variables	EIN	PTR	IEX	SEN	SEF	ENT
Entrepreneurial Interest
Personality Traits	0.105
Internship Experience	0.212	0.330
Social Environment	0.252	0.175	0.211
Self-Efficacy	0.238	0.528	0.552	0.299
Entrepreneurial Intention	0.217	0.365	0.529	0.498	0.756

Discriminant validity was also tested using the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) method, which provides an alternative approach to assess discriminant validity between constructs. In Table 4, the HTMT values for each pair of constructs were calculated and compared with the commonly accepted threshold of 0.85. The results show that all HTMT values are below this threshold, indicating no significant overlap between constructs. For instance, the HTMT value between Entrepreneurial Interest (EIN) and Personality Traits (PTR) is 0.105, well below 0.85, demonstrating that these two constructs are clearly distinguishable. Additionally, the HTMT value between Internship Experience (IEX) and Social Environment (SEN) is 0.211, further indicating that these constructs are distinctly separate. These findings indicate that the constructs in this study are not only individually valid but also well-differentiated from each other, thereby supporting the reliability and validity of the proposed model. Thus, the discriminant validity testing using the HTMT method provides additional evidence that the constructs in this study are reliable and valid for further analysis.

4.2 Evaluation of Structural Model

The evaluation of the structural model in PLS- SEM testing is a critical step conducted after the measurement model evaluation. This stage aims to assess the strength and validity of relationships between latent variables in the model. The structural model evaluation includes the R² value as an indicator of the model’s predictive strength for endogenous variables. Additionally, f² is calculated to evaluate

effect size. This assessment enables researchers to ensure that the constructed model adequately explains data variability and possesses reasonable predictive capabilities, thereby supporting more accurate research conclusions.

The coefficient of determination (R²) measures the proportion of variance in the dependent variable that can be explained by the independent variables in the model. According to Table 5, the R² value for Entrepreneurial Intention is 0.566, indicating that 56.6% of the variance in entrepreneurial intention is explained by the independent variables examined in this study, namely Entrepreneurial Interest, Personality Traits, Internship Experience, Social Environment, and Self-Efficacy. This R² value demonstrates that the model constructed in this study has a good ability to explain the relationships between the variables.

Effect size (ƒ²) measures the magnitude of an independent variable’s influence on the dependent variable within the model. Table 5 shows that the effect sizes of the variables in this study vary. For instance, Self-Efficacy has a large effect size (ƒ²=0.371) on Entrepreneurial Intention, indicating that an increase in self-efficacy significantly impacts entrepreneurial intention. In contrast, Personality Traits and Internship Experience have moderate effect sizes, with ƒ² values of 0.168 and 0.188, respectively, suggesting that while they contribute to entrepreneurial intention, their influence is not as strong as that of self-efficacy.

Table 5. Measurements of Inner Model: R² and ƒ²

	Coefficient of Determination R²			Effect Size (ƒ²)
Variables	Coefficient of Determination R²		SEF		ENT
	Value	Decision	Value	Decision	Value	Decision
Entrepreneurial Interest	–	–	–	–	–	–
Personality Traits	0.010	Weak	0.168	Moderate	0.000	Small
Internship Experience	0.043	Weak	0.188	Moderate	0.050	Small
Social Environment	0.063	Weak	0.039	Small	0.171	Medium
Self-Efficacy	0.383	Moderate	–	–	0.371	Large
Entrepreneurial Intention	0.566	Moderate	–	–	–	–

4.3 Hypothesis Testing

Path analysis and hypothesis testing aim to evaluate the direct and mediated effects between constructs in the model. This involves testing the significance of path coefficients to determine whether the hypothesized relationships between constructs are statistically significant. Additionally, mediation

analysis is conducted to evaluate whether the relationships among the four dimensions are mediated by the five dimensions. This analysis is crucial for understanding the complex mechanisms within the model and provides deeper insights into the dynamics of relationships between variables. Figure 2 presents a visualization of the results from the hypothesis testing evaluation.

Figure 2. Testing Path Analysis and Hypotheses

Direct effect testing was conducted to examine the relationships between independent and dependent variables. According to Table 7, hypothesis H-DIR1, which tests the influence of Entrepreneurial Interest on Personality Traits, was rejected with a β-value = 0.098, T-statistics = 0.851, and p-value = 0.395, indicating no significant effect. However, hypothesis H-DIR2, which tests the influence of Entrepreneurial Interest on Internship Experience, was accepted with a β-value = 0.207, T-statistics = 2.107, and p-value = 0.036, indicating a significant positive effect. Furthermore, hypothesis H-DIR5, which tests the

influence of Personality Traits on Entrepreneurial Intention, was rejected. On the other hand, hypothesis H-DIR6, testing the influence of Internship Experience on Self-Efficacy, was accepted, and was hypothesis H-DIR7, testing the influence of Internship Experience on Entrepreneurial Intention. Lastly, hypothesis H- DIR9, which tests the influence of Social Environment on Entrepreneurial Intention, was also accepted. These results indicate that several independent variables have a significant direct influence on the dependent variables.

Table 7. Hypothesis Testing: Analysis of Direct Effects

Hyp.	Path Analysis	β-value	T-statistics	ρ-value	Decision
			(>1.96)	(<0.05)
H-DIR1	Entrepreneurial Interest -> Personality Traits	0.098	0.851	0.395	Rejected
H-DIR2	Entrepreneurial Interest -> Internship Experience	0.207	2.107	0.036	Accepted
H-DIR3	Entrepreneurial Interest -> Social Environment	0.250	2.407	0.016	Accepted
H-DIR4	Personality Traits -> Self-Efficacy	0.338	4.172	0.000	Accepted
H-DIR5	Personality Traits -> Entrepreneurial Intention	0.010	0.118	0.906	Rejected
H-DIR6	Internship Experience -> Self-Efficacy	0.362	4.316	0.000	Accepted
H-DIR7	Internship Experience -> Entrepreneurial Intention	0.171	2.129	0.034	Accepted
H-DIR8	Social Environment -> Self-Efficacy	0.160	2.180	0.030	Accepted
H-DIR9	Social Environment -> Entrepreneurial Intention	0.284	3.609	0.000	Accepted
H-DIR10	Self-Efficacy -> Entrepreneurial Intention	0.511	4.744	0.000	Accepted

Table 7 presents the results of hypothesis testing, showing the path analysis and direct effects between variables. The analysis reveals that several hypotheses were accepted, such as the positive influence of entrepreneurial interest on internship experience and social environment, as well as the positive influence of personality traits and internship experience on self- efficacy. However, hypotheses testing the influence of entrepreneurial interest on personality traits and entrepreneurial intention were rejected, indicating that not all expected relationships were realized. In

conclusion, the hypothesis testing results demonstrate that entrepreneurial interest plays a role in shaping internship experience and social environment, which in turn influence self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention. The implication of these findings is that developing programs to enhance entrepreneurial interest can strengthen students’ internship experience and social environment, which are essential for improving their entrepreneurial intentions.

Table 8. Hypothesis Testing: Analysis of Indirect Effects

Hyp.	Path Analysis	β-value	T- statistics	ρ-value	Decision	Mediating Role
			(>1.96)	(<0.05)
H-IND1	Entrepreneurial Interest -> Internship Experience -> Self-Efficacy -> Entrepreneurial Intention	0.038	1.816	0.070	Accepted	Full Mediation
H-IND2	Personality Traits -> Self-Efficacy -> Entrepreneurial Intention	0.173	3.376	0.001	Accepted	Full Mediation
H-IND3	Internship Experience -> Self-Efficacy -> Entrepreneurial Intention	0.185	3.884	0.000	Accepted	Partial Mediation
H-IND4	Social Environment -> Self-Efficacy – > Entrepreneurial Intention	0.082	1.686	0.092	Rejected	No Mediation

Indirect effect testing was conducted to evaluate the mediating role of specific variables in the relationships between independent and dependent variables. Although not all direct effect hypotheses were accepted, the indirect effect testing revealed that these mediating variables play a critical role in explaining the relationship between Entrepreneurial Interest and Entrepreneurial Intention. For instance, while H-DIR1 was rejected, the influence of Entrepreneurial Interest on Entrepreneurial Intention can occur through the mediation of Self-Efficacy, which has a significant effect on Entrepreneurial Intention. Additionally, Internship Experience also demonstrated a significant indirect effect on Entrepreneurial Intention through Self-Efficacy. These findings indicate that mediating variables play an essential role in either strengthening or weakening

the relationships between independent and dependent variables, providing deeper insights into the dynamics within the research model.

Table 8 summarizes the conclusions of this study, emphasizing that entrepreneurial interest has a significant influence on entrepreneurial intention through the mediation of personality traits, internship experience, social environment, and self-efficacy. The study highlights that each mediating variable contributes to strengthening the relationship between entrepreneurial interest and entrepreneurial intention, with self-efficacy identified as the strongest mediator. These findings provide valuable insights for educators and policymakers in designing more effective entrepreneurship education programs. By understanding how these variables interact, targeted interventions can be developed to enhance

entrepreneurial interest and intention among students. In conclusion, this study underscores the importance of a holistic approach to entrepreneurship education, which takes into account the various factors influencing entrepreneurial intention. The implications of these findings suggest that efforts to promote entrepreneurship among students should involve the development of skills, practical experiences, and adequate social support.

5. Discussion

The influence of Entrepreneurial Interest on Personality Traits showed positive but non-significant results (H-DIR1), indicating that although entrepreneurial interest may affect personal characteristics, the influence is not strong enough to produce significant changes. The independent variable, Entrepreneurial Interest, impacts indicators such as independence and risk-taking courage, but it is insufficient to significantly alter these traits. These findings align with the study by (Juhari et al., 2023), which also found that while there is a relationship between interest and personality traits, the effect is not always significant. Internal factors, such as personal experiences and students’ educational backgrounds, may influence this relationship, while external factors like family support and the social environment may also play a role (Georgescu & Herman, 2020; Zreen et al., 2019). These findings are consistent with the research by (Kholifah et al., 2022), which suggests that interest does not always directly correlate with changes in personality but highlights the importance of social context and individual experiences. This suggests that the educational context in vocational schools may influence these results, where students may have high entrepreneurial interest but lack opportunities to optimally develop these traits. Therefore, it is important to further explore how the learning environment can support the development of personal characteristics that are conducive to entrepreneurship.

The study results indicate that Entrepreneurial Interest has a positive and significant influence on Internship Experience (H-DIR2) and Social Environment (H-DIR3), demonstrating that entrepreneurial interest can encourage students to engage in internship experiences and build supportive social networks. The conclusion drawn from these hypotheses is that students with high entrepreneurial interest tend to be more proactive in seeking internship opportunities and developing relevant social networks. These independent variable impacts indicator such as the quality of internship experiences and family support, which are critical in shaping entrepreneurial intention. Research by (Iwu et al., 2021) and (Abu Bakar et al., 2024) supports these findings, showing that meaningful internship experiences and positive social environments can

enhance entrepreneurial intentions. External factors such as the availability of internship programs and support from educational institutions can strengthen this relationship, while limited access to resources may act as a barrier (Mensah et al., 2023). These findings align with (Bazkiaei et al., 2020), who found that high levels of interest drive individuals to actively participate in activities that support entrepreneurial development. In the vocational school context, students may be more motivated to seek practical experiences aligned with their interests, thereby creating better opportunities for entrepreneurial development. Therefore, it is crucial for educational institutions to create programs that encourage student participation in internships and foster the development of strong social networks.

This study found that Personality Traits have a positive and significant influence on Self-Efficacy (H- DIR4), indicating that personal characteristics such as independence and risk-taking courage can enhance students’ confidence in their entrepreneurial abilities. The conclusion from this hypothesis is that students with strong personality traits tend to have higher levels of self-efficacy, which is a crucial indicator in entrepreneurship. This variable affects indicators such as adaptability and resilience, which are essential in overcoming entrepreneurial challenges. These findings align with research by (Triyono et al., 2023), which suggests that individuals with strong personality traits tend to exhibit higher confidence levels. Internal factors, such as prior experiences and education, may support this relationship, while external factors, such as mentorship and social environment, can further strengthen it (Odewole et al., 2024). The findings are consistent with research by (Obschonka et al., 2019), which highlights that positive personality traits contribute to the enhancement of self-efficacy. In the vocational school context, students possessing these traits may be better prepared to take risks and pursue entrepreneurial opportunities. Therefore, developing these personality characteristics should be a focus in entrepreneurship education curricula to boost students’ confidence.

Although Personality Traits show a positive influence on Entrepreneurial Intention, the study results indicate that this influence is not significant (H-DIR5). The conclusion drawn from this hypothesis is that personality traits alone are not strong enough to directly affect students’ entrepreneurial intentions. These independent variable impacts indicator such as independence and risk-taking courage but is insufficient to generate a strong entrepreneurial intention. Research by (Mutohhari et al., 2023), similarly found that while there is a relationship between personality traits and entrepreneurial intention, the influence is not always significant. Internal factors such as personal motivation and prior experiences may affect this relationship, while external factors like social environment support also

play a role (Kholifah et al., 2022; Triyono et al., 2023). These findings are relevant to the study by (Bazan et al., 2020), which highlights that entrepreneurial intention is influenced by various factors, including experience and environment. In the vocational school context, students may possess traits conducive to entrepreneurship, but the lack of practical support or real-world experience can hinder the development of entrepreneurial intention. Therefore, it is essential to further explore how external factors interact with personal traits to shape entrepreneurial intentions.

The study results indicate that Internship Experience has a positive and significant influence on Self-Efficacy (H-DIR6) and Entrepreneurial Intention (H-DIR7), suggesting that quality internship experiences can boost students’ confidence and encourage their entrepreneurial intentions. The conclusion drawn from these hypotheses is that good internship experiences enhance students’ confidence in their abilities and motivate them to pursue entrepreneurial careers. This variable affects indicators such as the quality of internship experiences and practical skills, which are highly relevant in the context of entrepreneurship. Research by (Fawaid et al., 2022) supports these findings, showing that quality internships can improve students’ skills and confidence. External factors such as the availability of quality internship programs and support from mentors can strengthen this relationship, while limited internship opportunities may act as barriers (Nguyen et al., 2019; Shah et al., 2020). These findings align with research by (Gao & Huang, 2022), which demonstrates that practical experiences contribute to enhanced self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. In the vocational school context, students who engage in relevant internship experiences may be better prepared to face entrepreneurial challenges. Therefore, educational institutions should focus on providing quality internships to support students’ entrepreneurial development.

This study found that Social Environment has a positive and significant influence on Self-Efficacy (H- DIR8) and Entrepreneurial Intention (H-DIR9), indicating that social support from family and peers can enhance students’ confidence and encourage their entrepreneurial intentions. The conclusion from these hypotheses is that a positive social environment can improve students’ self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. This variable affects indicators such as family support and participation in community activities, which contribute to building confidence. These findings align with research by (Bazan et al., 2020), which demonstrates that social support can boost confidence and entrepreneurial intentions. External factors such as an entrepreneurial culture in society and access to resources can strengthen this relationship, while a lack of social support may act as a barrier (Juhari et al., 2023; Paliwal et al., 2022).

These findings are also consistent with research by (Vinogradova et al., 2023), which shows that a supportive social environment contributes to entrepreneurial development. In the vocational school context, students with strong social support may be more motivated to pursue entrepreneurial opportunities. Therefore, educational institutions must create a supportive social environment for students to foster entrepreneurial development.

The study results indicate that Self-Efficacy has a positive and significant influence on Entrepreneurial Intention (H-DIR10), suggesting that confidence in entrepreneurial abilities can encourage students to pursue entrepreneurial intentions. The conclusion drawn from this hypothesis is that students with high levels of self-efficacy tend to have stronger entrepreneurial intentions. This variable affects indicators such as decision-making skills and networking abilities, which are crucial in the entrepreneurial context. Research by (Vivekananth et al., 2023) supports these findings, showing that individuals with high confidence in their entrepreneurial skills are more likely to pursue entrepreneurial intentions. Internal factors, such as prior experiences and education, may support this relationship, while external factors, such as mentorship and social environment, can further strengthen it (Abu Bakar et al., 2024). These findings align with research by (Odewole et al., 2024), which emphasizes the critical role of self-efficacy in shaping entrepreneurial intentions. In the vocational school context, students with high self-confidence may be better prepared to take risks and seize entrepreneurial opportunities. Therefore, it is essential to develop programs that enhance students’ confidence in their entrepreneurial skills.

The study results indicate that the hypothesis asserting the mediation of Internship Experience and Self-Efficacy (H-IND1) is accepted, meaning that these two variables play a significant role in strengthening the relationship between Entrepreneurial Interest and Entrepreneurial Intention. The independent variable, Entrepreneurial Interest, influences specific indicators such as knowledge about entrepreneurship, perceptions of entrepreneurship, and interest in entrepreneurship, all of which contribute to enhancing students’ entrepreneurial intentions. These findings are consistent with prior studies by (Jamaluddin et al., 2019; Portuguez Castro & Gómez Zermeño, 2021), which showed that entrepreneurial interest can enhance entrepreneurial intentions through practical experiences and self-confidence. However, in the context of this study, the relevance of the results indicates that the quality of internship experiences and the development of self-efficacy may vary depending on the school environment and the support students receive. Therefore, these findings highlight the importance of creating effective internship programs

and supporting the development of entrepreneurial skills in vocational schools to improve students’ entrepreneurial intentions.

The mediation of Self-Efficacy in the influence of Personality Traits, Internship Experience, and Social Environment on Entrepreneurial Intention (H-IND2, H-IND3, H-IND4) underscores the importance of understanding how individual characteristics and social environments affect entrepreneurial intentions. The study results support the hypothesis that Self- Efficacy serves as a significant mediator, meaning that students’ confidence in their ability to manage a business strengthens the effects of these variables on entrepreneurial intention. Personality Traits such as independence and risk-taking courage, along with positive internship experiences and social support, all contribute to enhancing Self-Efficacy, which in turn increases Entrepreneurial Intention. Research by (Ambad & Rafiki, 2024; Mei & Hua, 2015; Paliwal et al., 2022), suggests that strong personality traits can contribute to the development of self-efficacy, consistent with these findings. However, contextual variations in social environments and internship experiences may influence the extent of these effects, highlighting the need to consider local factors in implementing entrepreneurship programs. Thus, these findings emphasize the necessity of a holistic approach to entrepreneurship education that integrates character development, practical experiences, and social support to enhance students’ entrepreneurial intentions.

6. Conclusions

Based on the data analysis and hypothesis testing, this study found that entrepreneurial interest has a significant influence on entrepreneurial intention, both directly and through the mediation of variables such as self-efficacy, personality traits, and internship experience. These findings make a valuable contribution to entrepreneurship theory, particularly in the context of vocational education. The study also provides insights into the relationships between these variables and raises new questions about other factors that may influence students’ entrepreneurial intentions. The strength of this study lies in its use of an empirical approach that integrates various variables, offering a more comprehensive view of the dynamics involved in the development of entrepreneurial intentions.

The theoretical implications of these findings suggest that strengthening self-efficacy and internship experience can be effective strategies for enhancing students’ entrepreneurial intentions. In practice, educational institutions in the study area are encouraged to integrate programs that support the development of entrepreneurial skills, such as training, mentoring, and social environment support. These recommendations are crucial for creating an ecosystem that fosters entrepreneurship among

students. However, this study also has limitations, such as its focus on a single location, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings. Future research is therefore recommended to explore broader and more diverse contexts, as well as to consider other variables that may influence entrepreneurial intentions. This would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the factors contributing to the development of entrepreneurship among the younger generation.

Acknowledgement

We sincerely thank the Entrepreneurship Teachers Association and school principals in West Java for their support and voluntary assistance in providing access and distributing the survey to vocational students. Your contributions have been crucial in helping us understand entrepreneurial intentions and their influencing factors, paving the way for future entrepreneurship models. We deeply appreciate your commitment to advancing entrepreneurship education.

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